https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/44 Tue, 21 Apr 2026 13:03:39 GMT 2026-04-21T13:03:39Z https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3507 PROSPECTIVE OF TRANSGENIC CASSAVA LINES RESISTANCE IN EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF CMV AND CBSV CAUSED VIRAL DISEASES OF Manihot esculenta Crantz IN KENYA Were, Mariam Nyongesa Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an essential food crop in Kenya. Despite its importance, the national average yield of 3 tonnes/hectare is among the lowest globally, primarily due to the lack of high-quality and disease-free planting materials. The most devastating viral diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa are; Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD). The viruses are spread by whiteflies and infected planting material. Recent studies have revealed that CMD and CBSD cause up to 100% yield losses. Proposed strategies for minimizing these loses include planting resistant varieties and large-scale surveillance. This study sought to establish the sources of cassava seed among farmers, type of viruses and associated cassava disease levels in selected counties of Kenya. Further, the study evaluated the diversity of viruses, viral load, resistance and yielding efficacy levels of 27 transgenic cassava lines, engineered towards management of CMD and CBSD diseases of cassava under a confined field trial at Alupe, Busia County. A diagnostic survey was carried out in Cassava growing counties of Kenya, followed by a randomized complete block in design experiment that evaluated the transgenic lines under a confined environment. Real time Quantitative PCR, Sequencing, modelling, TAS and DAS ELISA techniques were used to answer the objectives. To establish an infection under the confined trial; leafy and hardwood cassava stem cuttings which were CMD and CBSD-infected from growing counties were used as infectors in the confined experiment at Alupe-Busia. The diagnostic survey results showed that all the sampled counties had CMD and CBSD diseases. Out of 240 samples that had CMD symptoms at the field; 132 (55%) tested positive for CMVs, 29(12%) tested positive for CBSVs, whereas 79(32.9%) were negative of the two diseases. For the 207 samples that had CBSD symptoms; 108 (52.2%) tested positive for CBSVs, 7(3.4%) tested positive for CMVs and 92 (44.4%) were negative. The CMD incidence levels ranged from 27.6% at Kisii County to 60.34% in Busia County. Whereas, for CBSD it ranged from 26.02% in Kilifi County to 38.74% in Busia County. For phylogeny analysis, two isolates from Kenya (BUS-STR and KAK 16) clustered in Group I, while the others clustered in Group II. The Kenyan novel ACMV isolates from Busia and Kakamega were more similar to Ugandan isolates, suggesting common ancestry.CBSD resistant transgenic lines; 19, 22, 56, 398, 402, 404, 497, 498 and 500 exhibited symptoms of CBSD and CMD within the first four months after planting with varying incidence levels. For CMD resistant transgenic lines; 74, 115, 141, 145 and 157 showed CMD and CBSD symptoms within first four months after planting. Hence, were purposively not selected for viral load, resistance and yield efficacy levels evaluations in objective three and four. Among the CMD viruses detected in the transgenic lines samples; EACMV was the highest at 87.5%, with EACM Ug most dominant strain at 85.71%. For CBSD; UCBSV was dominant at 79.1% followed by CBSV at 62.5%. The viral load varied among the CMD transgenic lines with line 167 having the highest at 4697.736, whereas line 166 had the lowest at 167.466. On the other hand, CBSD transgenic lines 407 and 506 having the highest and lowest at 8.167 and 0.2135 respectively. Focusing on resistance levels; CMD transgenic line 166 had 64.43%, with non-transformed line 60444 having the lowest at 24.44%. For CBSD transgenic lines; 501 had 82.84%, with 60444 having 59.70%. For the yielding efficacy levels; CMD transgenic lines 166 and 129 had 13.53%, with 133 having the lowest at 4.05%. For the CBSD transgenic lines; 501 had efficacy of 57.14%, whereas, 60444 had the lowest at 9.02%. These, findings confirm the significant presence of CMD and CBSD viruses in major cassava-growing regions of Kenya. The resistance of the transgenic lines varies in a continuous manner among the lines. Hence, providing an opportunity for optimization in efforts to manage CMD and CBSD effectively. Tue, 01 Jul 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3507 2025-07-01T00:00:00Z https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3505 PEACEBUILDING STRATEGIES INFLUENCING INTER-ETHNIC COHESION AMONG THE BOUNDARY COMMUNITIES OF KISUMU AND NANDI COUNTIES, KENYA Keta, Kida Jacob This study investigated peacebuilding strategies influencing inter-ethnic cohesion among boundary communities of Kisumu and Nandi Counties, Kenya. Four specific objectives guided the study: to examine the nature of peacebuilding strategies employed; to assess the extent of the inter-ethnic relations; determine the nexus between peacebuilding strategies and ethnic cohesion; and to explore the challenges and opportunities of peacebuilding strategies. The study filled the gaps in the literature and created new knowledge on the peacebuilding strategies and inter-ethnic cohesion. It also provided security policymakers with a framework to ensure cohesion. The study was conducted within the boundary of Kisumu and Nandi Counties. The study was supported by two theories: conflict transformation and primordial. Descriptive and explanatory designs were adopted. The study population comprised household heads, community leaders, religious leaders, state security officers, and CSOs. The sample size was 320 household heads, 52 key informants and 48 focus group participants drawn from the four wards. The study adopted simple random and purposive sampling strategies to select participants. Questionnaires were used to collect data from the household heads; Interview schedule was used to collect data from key informants. FGD guide was used to collect data from the committee members. Secondary data was collected from journals, government and NGOs reports and theses. SPSS (V.30.1) was used to analyze quantitative data which provided frequencies and percentages and presented in tables and figures. Thematic and content analysis methods were used to analyze the qualitative data. On the nature of peacebuilding strategies, most strategies are implemented by state, non-state and indigenous actors, and also strategies were either reactive and proactive through the activities such as dialogue (31.8%), sports and theatre (19.2%), psycho-social support (16.9%), peace caravans (13.6%), and security forces deployment, (10.6%). Results on the extent of inter-ethnic cohesion show that despite the high extent of harmony (79%), there is high extent of intolerance (80%), high extent of prejudices (77%) and low level of trust (57%) and communities still interact through intermarriages, shared institutions and trade. Nexus between strategies and cohesion is to a high extent (61%) due to activities of youth groups contributing to (77%), local and international NGOs (72%), religious groups (68%), women groups (64%), military and police service (59%) and elders (56.2%) employ dialogue (62%), sports and drama (77%), and EWS (67%) to build cohesion. Challenges include cultural beliefs (31%), inadequate resources (24%), national politics (20%), lack of participation (16%), and nature of the area (9%). Opportunities included use of local resources (31%), socio cultural integration (20%), ADR mechanism (17%), disarmament (13%), technology (11%), and socioeconomic development (8%).The overall conclusion was that the strategies employed have positively contributed to inter-ethnic cohesion despite some challenges. The study recommends that actors to collaborate with local communities. On the extent of ethnic relations, more sociocultural integration in the area. The study also recommends collaboration between the state and non-state actors in funding cohesion initiatives. To reduce challenges, state and non-state actors to use locally available resources such as boda boda operators, youth and women groups to overcome cohesion challenges in the area. Thu, 01 May 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3505 2025-05-01T00:00:00Z https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3491 GENDER MAINSTREAMING POLICIES INFLUENCING WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN ATTAINMENT OF PEACE IN NAKURU AND NAROK COUNTIES, KENYA Onamu, Beatrice Akoth From a global perspective, gender mainstreaming has been embraced as a strategy to magnify and propagate women’s rights to achieve gender parity. The United States has been hailed to be making significant progress in advancing gender equality. However, it continues to grapple with endless gender inequalities despite the enormous progress. From Africa’s perspective, gender mainstreaming has received a significant attention as exemplified by the implementation of gender-related policies. However, the implementation has been weak as women continue to be constrained by socioeconomic, political and cultural hurdles and Kenyan women are not an exception. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, women’s political participation in the Rift Valley area is notably low compared to other regions. Despite having similar gender mainstreaming policies, Nakuru County has more women in political representation than Narok County. This study aimed to uncover the reasons behind these disparities. The study’s objectives were to examine the nature of gender mainstreaming policies, evaluate the extent of women’s political participation towards the attainment of peace in Nakuru and Narok counties, explore opportunities for women’s political participation towards the attainment of peace in Nakuru and Narok counties, and investigate the challenges to women’s political participation towards the attainment of peace in Nakuru and Narok counties. The research was grounded in radical feminism theory, structural violence theory, and political development theory. Philosophically, the study was grounded in pragmatism philosophical approach. The study deployed descriptive survey research design which was aided by both qualitative and quantitative methods. The target population comprised of 384 household heads, derived through Fisher’s formula and sampled using simple random technique, key informants including the security personnel, county officials dealing with gender issues, CSO officials, elected and non-elected political leaders and conflict management experts who were purposively sampled. Data was collected using questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Qualitative data collected was analysed thematically and presented in verbatim quotations while quantitative data was analysed using inferential and descriptive statistics with an aid of SPSS version 28 and presented in frequencies, percentages, graphs, tables and pie charts. The results found that socially constructed ways of life negatively affected gender mainstreaming to promote peaceful coexistence and did not accord women equal opportunities, as a gendered approach to peace building was lacking in Narok. Women in the study areas still face several hurdles including underrepresentation, strong cultural and social norms, and weak legal structures pertaining to gender mainstreaming. These factors not only hinder their participation in politics but also in peace building. The study also found that women’s political participation presented untapped opportunities including the need for women’s empowerment, strengthening of the existing genders mainstreaming policies and the potential for collaboration of both genders to attain peace and enhance effective political participation of both genders. The study concluded that there are progress and on-going challenges in achieving gender parity in political representation. A stronger political will and better support systems have seen more women participate in politics, while Narok requires more effective implementation of gender mainstreaming policies. Wed, 01 Oct 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3491 2025-10-01T00:00:00Z https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3478 CONFLICT INTERVENTION BY THE UNITED NATIONS STABILIZATION MISSION IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO’S PEACE AND SECURITY PROCESSES Kimathi, Robert Koome The Democratic Republic of Congo has been marred by protracted conflict, instability, and human suffering for decades. This study examines chronology and nature of external interventions, including peacekeeping missions, diplomatic initiatives, and economic engagement. Studies on or and around United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo with respect to conflict, peace and security, portray shortcomings bordering on ineffectiveness. This presents a serious paradox and a question on conflict intervention by United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo’s peace and security processes. The study general objective was to investigate the effects of conflict intervention by United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo’s peace and security processes. The specific objectives were to examine the effectiveness of the institutional frameworks of United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo in peace and security processes; assess the capabilities of United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo in enhancing peace and security processes; interrogate peace and security dynamics in the Democratic Republic of Congo as a result of the conflict intervention by United Nations Stabilization Mission and evaluate challenges and opportunities faced by United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo in fulfilling its mandate on peace and security processes. The study explored Liberal Theory, Cooperative Security Theory, Power Theory and Theory of Functionalism from which a conceptual model was drawn. The study was conducted in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. A descriptive survey and an evaluative research design were adopted. The target population was 49,871 with a unit of analysis of 21,105 civilians comprising 5052 refugees, 4053 internally displaced persons and 12,000 local traders, 16,161 United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo staff, 7,895 from major none governmental organizations, and 4,710 from the political class, the rebel groups, and immigration.The sample size was 384 which was determined using Dillman formula. The primary data was collected using questionnaires, focus group discussions, observation guides and key informant interviews while secondary data from books, journals and other relevant sources. Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis while statistical data using descriptive statistics. The findings of the study indicate that, 58.08% disagreed that conflict in Democratic Republic of Congo requires external intervention, 55.81% agreed that Rwanda and Uganda are an obstacle to United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 53.9% agreed that United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo is reactive and not proactive and 60.32% agreed that United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo is occupational and not an interventional force. The overall conclusion of this study is that the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo had a significant yet mixed impact on the country's peace and security processes. While the mission has played a crucial role in stabilizing certain conflict-affected areas, reducing violence, and facilitating peace agreements, its long-term effectiveness has been limited by several challenges. These include the persistence of armed groups, the complexity of local and regional geopolitical dynamics, and the limited capacity of the Congolese government to maintain security independently. The study recommends on enhancing Democratic Republic of Congo’s governance structures and security reforms, boosting operational capacity for United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, adoption of a multifaceted approach to solutions, and strengthen the rule of law. Sun, 01 Dec 2024 00:00:00 GMT https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/3478 2024-12-01T00:00:00Z